Policy solutions to eliminate racial and ethnic child health disparities in the USA.

Societal systems act individually and in combination to create and perpetuate structural racism through both policies and practices at the local, state, and federal levels, which, in turn, generate racial and ethnic health disparities. Both current and historical policy approaches across multiple sectors-including housing, employment, health insurance, immigration, and criminal legal-have the potential to affect child health equity. Such policies must be considered with a focus on structural racism to understand which have the potential to eliminate or at least attenuate disparities. Policy efforts that do not directly address structural racism will not achieve equity and instead worsen gaps and existing disparities in access and quality-thereby continuing to perpetuate a two-tier system dictated by racism. In Paper 2 of this Series, we build on Paper 1's summary of existing disparities in health-care delivery and highlight policies within multiple sectors that can be modified and supported to improve health equity, and, in so doing, improve the health of racially and ethnically minoritised children.

Commentary: Achieving Health Equity - The Role of Learning Health Systems.

Achieving health equity, for decades a domain of high-performing health systems, has been elevated to a priority and recognized as a central objective of health system transformation and quality improvement efforts. By prioritizing health equity; developing, implementing and evaluating models of care that optimize individual and population health; developing strong partnerships with patients and communities; conducting research to generate evidence on the effectiveness of interventions across diverse populations; implementing strategies to integrate clinical care, public health and social care; and participating in multisector collaborations to address social needs, learning health systems can play a pivotal role in eliminating health inequities.

Clarity on Disparity: Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.

This article offers a framework of who, what, when, where, why, and how of health disparities that can serve as a systematic approach to move from description to understanding causes and taking action to ensure health equity.

Statewide Perinatal Quality Improvement, Teamwork, and Communication Activities in Oklahoma and Texas.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe statewide perinatal quality improvement (QI) activities, specifically implementation of Alliance for Innovation on Maternal Health (AIM) patient safety bundles and use of teamwork and communication tools in obstetric units in Oklahoma and Texas. METHODS: In January-February 2020, we conducted a survey of AIM-enrolled hospitals in Oklahoma (n = 35) and Texas (n = 120) to gather data on obstetric unit organization and QI processes. Data were linked to hospital characteristics information from the 2019 American Hospital Association survey and hospitals' maternity levels of care from state agencies. We generated descriptive statistics for each state and created an index to summarize adoption of QI processes. We fitted linear regression models to examine how this index varied by hospital characteristics and self-reported ratings for patient safety and AIM bundle implementation. RESULTS: Most obstetric units had standardized clinical processes for obstetric hemorrhage (94% Oklahoma; 97% Texas), massive transfusion (94% Oklahoma; 97% Texas), and severe hypertension in pregnancy (97% Oklahoma; 80% Texas); regularly conducted simulation drills for obstetric emergencies (89% Oklahoma; 92% Texas); had multidisciplinary QI committees (61% Oklahoma; 83% Texas); and conducted debriefs after major obstetric complications (45% Oklahoma; 86% Texas). Few obstetric units offered recent staff training on teamwork and communication to their staff (6% Oklahoma; 22% Texas); those who did were more likely to employ specific strategies to facilitate communication, escalate concerns, and manage staff conflicts. Overall, adoption of QI processes was significantly higher in hospitals in urban than rural areas, teaching than nonteaching, offering higher levels of maternity care, with more staff per shift, and greater delivery volume (all P < .05). The QI adoption index scores were strongly associated with respondents' ratings for patient safety and implementation of maternal safety bundles (both P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Adoption of QI processes varies across obstetric units in Oklahoma and Texas, with implications for implementing future perinatal QI initiatives. Notably, findings highlight the need to reinforce support for rural obstetric units, which often face greater barriers to implementing patient safety and QI processes than urban units.

Effects of a Curriculum Addressing Racism on Pediatric Residents' Racial Biases and Empathy.

Background: Racism is a longstanding driver of health inequities. Although medical education is a potential solution to address racism in health care, best practices remain unknown. Objective: We sought to evaluate the impact of participation in a curriculum addressing racism on pediatric residents' racial biases and empathy. Methods: A pre-post survey study was conducted in 2 urban, university-based, midsized pediatric residency programs between July 2019 and June 2020. The curriculum sessions included Self-Reflection on Implicit Bias, Historical Trauma, and Structural Racism. All sessions were paired with empathy and perspective-taking exercises and were conducted in small groups to facilitate reflective discussion. Wilcoxon signed rank tests were used to assess changes in racial bias and empathy. Linear regression was used to assess the effect of resident characteristics on racial bias and empathy. Results: Ninety of 111 residents receiving the curriculum completed pre-surveys (81.1%), and among those, 65 completed post-surveys (72.2%). Among participants with baseline pro-White bias, there was a statistically significant shift (0.46 to 0.36, P=.02) toward no preference. Among participants with a baseline pro-Black bias, there was a statistically significant shift (-0.38 to -0.21, P=.02), toward no preference. Among participants with baseline pro-White explicit bias, there was a statistically significant shift (0.54 to 0.30, P<.001) toward no preference. Among all residents, there was a modest but statistically significant decrease in mean empathy (22.95 to 22.42, P=.03). Conclusions: Participation in a longitudinal discussion-based curriculum addressing racism modestly reduced pediatric residents' racial preferences with minimal effects on empathy scales.

The Intersection of Race, Racism, and Child and Adolescent Health.

There has been an increasing focus on the impact of racism both within pediatrics and throughout society as a whole. This focus has emerged as a result of the current sociopolitical climate in the United States coupled with the recent deaths of Black Americans by law enforcement and the maltreatment of Latina/o immigrants. In 2019, the American Academy of Pediatrics released the landmark policy statement "The Impact of Racism on Child and Adolescent Health," which describes the profound effects of racism on health, its function in perpetuating health disparities, and the potential role of child health professionals in addressing racism as a public health issue. (1) Foundational knowledge regarding race, racism, and their relation to health are not consistently included in standard medical education curricula. This leaves providers, including pediatricians, with varying levels of understanding regarding these concepts. This article seeks to provide an overview of the intersection of race, racism, and child/adolescent health in an effort to reduce knowledge gaps among pediatric providers with the ultimate goal of attenuating racial health disparities among children and adolescents. Please reference the Table for additional resources to reinforce concepts described throughout this article.

Design and Implementation of the Pediatric Quality Measures Program 2.0.

The Pediatric Quality Measures Program (PQMP) was established in response to the Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2009, aiming to measure and improve health care quality and outcomes for the nation's children. This brief report describes the PQMP 2.0 and its components. PQMP 2.0 established a priori research questions (Research Foci) and endeavored to assess usability and feasibility of measures through measure implementation and quality improvement initiatives. The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) awarded 6 grants to Centers of Excellence (COEs), and a contract to facilitate collaboration and learning across the COEs. The 6 COEs partnered with stakeholders from multiple levels (eg, state, health plan, hospital, provider, family) to field test real-world implementation and refinement of pediatric quality measures and quality improvement initiatives. The PQMP Learning Collaborative (PQMP-LC) consisted of AHRQ, CMS, the 6 COEs, and L&M Policy Research, LLC. The PQMP-LC completed literature reviews, key informant interviews, and data collection to develop reports to address the Research Foci; aided with development of measure implementation and quality improvement toolkits; conceptualized an implementation science framework, analysis, and roadmap; and facilitated dissemination of learnings and products. The various products are intended to support the uptake of PQMP measures and inform future pediatric measurement and improvement work.

Real-World Considerations for Implementing Pediatric Quality Measures: Insights From Key Stakeholders.

OBJECTIVE: Since its inception, the Pediatric Quality Measures Program has focused on the development and implementation of new and innovative pediatric quality measures (PQM) for both public and private use. Building the evidence base related to measure usability and feasibility is central to increasing measure uptake and, thereby, to increased performance monitoring and quality improvement (QI) for children in Medicaid or the Children's Health Insurance Program. This paper describes key stakeholder insights focused on measure implementation and increasing the uptake of PQM. METHODS: The PQMP Learning Collaborative conducted semistructured interviews with 9 key informants (KIs) representing states, health plans, and other potential end users of the measures. The interviews focused on gaining KIs' perspectives on 6 research questions focused on assessing the feasibility and usability of PQM and strengthening the connection between measurement and improvement. RESULTS: Our synthesis identified insights that highlight facilitators and barriers from the KIs' experience and the strategies they employ when using measures to drive improvement "on-the-ground." Importantly, while the KIs agreed on how essential the research questions are to measure implementation and uptake, they uniformly acknowledged the complexity of the issues raised and pinpointed multiple unresolved issues. DISCUSSION: The views expressed by these stakeholders point to several key issues - including incorporation of socio-economic status into quality measures and performance comparisons, use of benchmark data, and criteria for QI versus accountability - for developing a real-world research agenda to guide the future direction of quality measurement and implementation to improve children's health care.

Contextual Factors Affecting Implementation of Pediatric Quality Improvement Programs.

OBJECTIVE: Context is a critical determinant of the effectiveness of quality improvement programs. We assessed the role of contextual factors in influencing the efforts of 5 diverse quality improvement projects as part of the Pediatric Quality Measure Program (PQMP) directed by the Agency for Health Care Research and Quality. METHODS: We conducted a mixed methods study of 5 PQMP grantees involving semistructured interviews followed by structured worksheets to identify influential contextual factors. Semistructured interviews and worksheets were completed between August and October 2020. Participants were comprised of PQMP grantee teams (2-4 team members per team for a total of 15 participants). Coding and analysis was based on the Tailored Implementation for Chronic Diseases (TICD) framework. RESULTS: Despite heterogeneity in the process and outcome targets of the PQMP initiatives, professional interactions, incentives and resources, and capacity for organizational change were the domains most commonly identified as influential across the grantees. While social, political, and legal factors was not commonly referenced as an important domain, payer or funder policies (a factor within this domain) was highlighted as one of the most influential factors. Overall, the incentives and resources domain was identified as the most influential. CONCLUSIONS: We found that using a determinant framework, such as the TICD, is valuable in facilitating comparisons across heterogeneous projects, allowing us to identify key contextual factors influencing the implementation of pediatric quality measures across a diverse range of clinical topics and settings. Future quality improvement work should account for this and include resources to support infrastructure development in addition to program implementation.

"It Makes Me a Better Person and Doctor": A Qualitative Study of Residents' Perceptions of a Curriculum Addressing Racism.

OBJECTIVE: Explore how pediatric residents perceive the impact of a curriculum addressing racism on their knowledge, motivation, skills and behaviors, and investigate the contextual factors that promote or impede the curriculum's effectiveness. METHODS: Open-ended, semistructured interviews were conducted at 2 academic medical centers between August 2019 and 2020 among pediatric residents who participated in the curriculum. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed by using inductive content analysis. RESULTS: Pediatric residents (n = 16) were predominantly white (66.7%), female (86.7%) interns (60%) from the Midwest (40%). Six major themes emerged describing the perceived impact of the curriculum on: knowledge - (1) Understanding of race and racism as structural forces in a historical context; motivation - (2) Owning the issue of racism, (3) Having the curriculum makes a statement; skills - (4) Critical self-reflection, (5) Perceived development of skills to mitigate biases; and action-planning - (6) Turning insight into strategies to combat racism and improve patient care. Two additional themes emerged describing contextual factors that promoted or impeded the curriculum such as the content of the curriculum itself, the racial demographics of the participants, the implementation infrastructure and environmental factors such as the culture of the training program. CONCLUSIONS: Medical education addressing racism can facilitate the perceived acquisition of foundational knowledge regarding race and racism; motivation and skill-building to combat racism; and action planning aimed at improving patient care. Contextual factors should be considered when developing and implementing such curricula to not only promote racial equity but avoid unintended harms.

Factors Associated With Postprocedure Opioid Prescribing and Persistent Opioid Use Among Opioid-naive Patients: A Nationally Representative Sample.

OBJECTIVE: Examine factors associated with postprocedure opioid receipt and persistent opioid use among opioid-naive patients in a nationally representative sample. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: We used panels 18-20 in the Medical Expenditures Panel Survey (MEPS) between the years 2013 and 2015. Respondents ages 18 and over with any self-reported procedure in the previous year with complete data on the outcome variables for the remainder of the 2-year study period. METHODS: This prospective observational study used multivariable regression to determine factors associated with postprocedure opioid receipt and persistent opioid use among opioid-naive patients, adjusting for sociodemographic, health, and procedure-related characteristics. RESULTS: Adjusted models showed younger age, Western location (AOR = 1.38; 95% CI = 1.02, 1.86), and high-school degree (AOR = 1.60; CI = 1.14, 2.26) were associated with higher odds of postprocedure opioid receipt. Patients who had procedures in an inpatient (AOR: 5.71; CI: 4.31-7.56), outpatient (AOR = 3.77; CI = 2.87,4.95), and dental setting (AOR = 2.86; CI = 1.45, 5.63), and musculoskeletal diagnoses (AOR = 2.23; CI = 1.39, 3.58) and injuries (AOR = 2.04; CI = 1.29, 3.23) were more likely to have postprocedure opioid receipt. Persistent opioid use was associated with Midwest (AOR = 2.06; CI = 1.08, 3.95) and Northeast location (AOR = 2.45; CI = 1.03, 3.95), musculoskeletal diagnosis (AOR = 3.91; CI = 1.23, 8.31), public insurance (AOR = 2.07; CI = 1.23-3.49), and positive depression screener (AOR = 3.36; CI = 2.04, 5.55). CONCLUSIONS: Procedures account for a large portion of opioid prescriptions among opioid-naive patients. This study provides evidence to inform national guidelines for opioid prescribing and postprocedure pain management.

Police Exposures and the Health and Well-being of Black Youth in the US: A Systematic Review.

Importance: Black youth in the US experience disproportionate contact with police even when accounting for criminal or delinquent behavior, which some experts say is fueled by racism and discrimination. While the literature supports the link between racism and adverse health outcomes, less is known about the impact of policing on the well-being of Black youth. Objective: To systematically review the literature describing the association between police exposure and health outcomes for Black youth 26 years and younger. Evidence Review: A search of PubMed, Embase, Criminal Justice Abstracts, PsycInfo, and Web of Science was conducted. Eligible studies included original peer-reviewed research published from 1980 to December 2020, with a participant population of Black youth, a focus on police exposure, and health as the outcome. Additional articles were identified by hand-searching reference lists of included studies. Data extraction was performed, followed by critical appraisal of all included studies using a convergent segregated approach in which quantitative and qualitative studies were synthesized separately followed by an overarching synthesis across methods. Findings: A total of 16 quantitative studies including 19 493 participants were included in the review and demonstrated an association between police exposure and adverse mental health, sexual risk behaviors, and substance use. A total of 13 qualitative studies including 461 participants were included in the review, which corroborated and contextualized the quantitative evidence and provided additional health outcomes, such as fear for life or hopelessness. Conclusions and Relevance: Evidence shows that police exposures are associated with adverse health outcomes for Black youth. Clinicians, scientists, public health practitioners, and policy makers can partner with local governments to enact reforms that mitigate the health impact of policing on youth.

"I Don't Do Much Without Researching Things Myself": A Mixed Methods Study Exploring the Role of Parent Health Literacy in Autism Services Use for Young Children.

Little is known about how parent health literacy contributes to health-related outcomes for children with autism. This mixed-methods study included 82 U.S. parents of a child with autism 2-5 years-old and sought to describe (1) health literacy dimensions, (2) how health literacy influences services use, and (3) health literacy improvement strategies. Results showed: autism information was accessed from multiple sources; understanding autism information involved "doing your own research"; autism information empowered decision-making; health literacy facilitated behavioral services use; health literacy influenced medication use; family and system characteristics also affected services use; autism education remains needed; services information is needed across the diagnostic odyssey; and greater scientific information accessibility would increase uptake. Findings demonstrate how parent health literacy affects services use.

Accelerating learning healthcare system development through embedded research: Career trajectories, training needs, and strategies for managing and supporting embedded researchers.

BACKGROUND: Health systems and organizations seeking to achieve learning healthcare system principles are increasingly relying on embedded research teams to optimize delivery of evidence-based, high-quality care that improves patient and staff experience alike. However, building organizational capacity to conduct and benefit from embedded research may be challenging in the absence of clearer guidance on career pathways and training, as well as strategies for managing and supporting this unique workforce. METHODS: In February 2018, 115 attendees from multiple agencies, institutions and professional societies participated in a conference to accelerate development of learning healthcare systems through embedded research. Workgroups engaged in structured brainstorming discussions of key domains; 21 diverse members focused on strengthening the embedded research community through more explicit development and support of multilevel career trajectories. RESULTS: Emphasis emerged on the need for training that goes beyond traditional curricula in rigorous scientific methods to include leadership, communication, and other organizational and business skills rarely offered in research training programs. These skills are required for effective engagement of multilevel stakeholders supporting evidence-based changes in routine care. Improving readiness of other stakeholders to effectively act on evidence was noted as equally crucial, as was creation of mid-career development opportunities for researchers and implementers. CONCLUSIONS: Further development and support of the embedded research workforce will require explicit attention to novel training programs and support of researchers and the stakeholders in the systems they aim to improve. IMPLICATIONS: Strategies for improving career entry and mastery of skills that foster effective multilevel stakeholder engagement hold promise for strengthening the embedded research community and their contributions to systematic improvements in health and health care.

An Association Between Maternal Intimate Partner Physical Violence and a Loaded Firearm in the Home.

A loaded firearm in the home increases the risk of firearm-related mortality. Furthermore, firearms are often used in fatal cases of intimate partner physical violence (IPPV) during pregnancy and in the postpartum period. Young children are often caught in the crossfire. Although firearms are more prevalent in homes with IPPV compared with homes without IPPV, little is known about the relationship between a loaded firearm and maternal IPPV. The objective was to determine whether maternal IPPV in the context of additional psychosocial factors is associated with a loaded firearm in the home. We analyzed population-based survey data (2004-2011) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) in eight states for which questions on firearms were included. Chi-square analysis of independence was used to determine differences between mothers reporting both IPPV and a loaded firearm to mothers reporting IPPV only or a loaded firearm only. Multivariable weighted logistic regression examined the association between IPPV and presence of a loaded firearm in the home (adjusting for sociodemographic and psychosocial factors). Of the 43,845 mothers in our sample, 5.3% mothers reported storing a loaded firearm in the home and 6.7% reported maternal IPPV. Among mothers reporting IPPV, 5% also reported a loaded firearm. When adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics only, maternal IPPV was significantly associated with storing a loaded firearm in the home (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.39; 95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.01, 1.91]). However, after additionally considering psychosocial factors, there was no longer a statistically significant association between maternal IPPV and storing a loaded firearm in the home (aOR = 1.31; 95% CI = [0.93, 1.84]). Contextual factors play an important role in understanding the complex relationship between maternal IPPV and the presence of a loaded firearm in the home, and maternal IPPV should be considered in efforts to promote firearm safety.

Provider Specialty and Receipt of Metabolic Monitoring for Children Taking Antipsychotics.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Metabolic monitoring is important for children taking antipsychotic medication, given the risk for increased BMI, impaired glucose metabolism, and hyperlipidemia. The purpose was to examine the influence of provider specialty on the receipt of metabolic monitoring. Specifically, differences in the receipt of recommended care when a child receives outpatient care from a primary care provider (PCP), a mental health provider with prescribing privileges, or both was examined. METHODS: Medicaid enrollment and health care and pharmacy claims data from 2 states were used in the analyses. Providers were assigned to specialties by using a crosswalk of the National Provider Identifier numbers to specialty type. A total of 41 078 children were included. RESULTS: For both states, 61% of children saw ≥1 provider type and had adjusted odds ratios for receiving metabolic monitoring that were significantly higher than those of children seeing PCPs only. For example, children seeing a PCP and a mental health provider with prescribing privileges during the year had adjusted odds of receiving metabolic monitoring that were 42% higher than those seeing a PCP alone (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Shared care arrangements significantly increased the chances that metabolic monitoring would be done. For states, health plans, and clinicians to develop meaningful quality improvement strategies, identifying the multiple providers caring for the children and potentially responsible for ordering tests consistent with evidence-based care is essential. Provider attribution in the context of shared care arrangements plays a critical role in driving quality improvement efforts.